Circuit breakers, fuses and ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) are commonly used devices for protecting people and property from dangerous electrical faults. Fatalities and loss of property, however, still occur, being caused by electrical faults that go undetected by these protective devices. One such type of electrical fault that typically goes undetected are arc faults. Arcs are potentially dangerous due to the high temperatures contained within them. Thus, they have a high potential of creating damage, mostly through the initiation of fires. An arc, however, will only trip a GFCI it if produces sufficient current leakage to ground. In addition, an arc will trip a breaker only if the current, flowing through the arc, exceeds the trip parameters of the thermal/magnetic mechanism of the breaker. Therefore, an additional type of protection device is needed to detect and interrupt arcs that do not fit these criteria. An arc detector whose output is used to trigger a circuit interrupting mechanism is referred to as an arc fault circuit interrupter (AFCI).
According to the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) in 1992, it was estimated that "there were 41,000 fires involving home electrical wiring systems . . . which resulted in 320 deaths, 1600 injuries and $511 million in property losses." The CPSC further stated that "an electrically caused fire may occur if electrical energy is unintentionally converted to thermal energy and if the heat so generated is transferred to a combustible material at such a rate and for such a time as to cause the material to reach its ignition temperature." The two main causes of unintentional conversion of electrical energy to heat are excessive current and arcing. Circuit breakers and fuses are currently available to mitigate the results of excessive current, but no commercial system exists to mitigate arcing.
A dangerous condition may develop whenever prolonged arcing exists regardless of whether it involves industrial, commercial or residential power lines. However, mobile homes and especially homes with antiquated wiring systems are particularly vulnerable to fires started due to electrical causes. CPSC studies have shown that the frequency of wiring system fires is disproportionately high in homes over 40 years old.
The causes of arcing are numerous, for example: aged or worn insulation and wiring; mechanical and electrical stress caused by overuse, over currents or lightning strikes; loose connections; and excessive mechanical damage to insulation and wires. Two types of arcing occur in residential and commercial buildings: contact arcing and line arcing. Contact (or series) arcing occurs between two contacts in series with a load. Therefore, the load controls the current flowing in the arc. Line (or parallel) arcing occurs between lines or from a line to ground. Thus, the arc is in parallel with any load present and the source impedance provides the only limit to the current flowing in the arc. It is important for any arc detection system to be able to detect both contact and line arcing and to act appropriately depending upon the severity of the arc.
An example of contact arcing is illustrated in FIG. 1. The conductors 114, 116 comprising the cable 110, are separated and surrounded by an insulator 112. A portion of the conductor 114 is broken, creating a series gap 118 in conductor 114. Under certain conditions, arcing will occur across this gap, producing a large amount of localized heat. The heat generated by the arcing might be sufficient to break down and carbonize the insulation close to the arc 119. If the arc is allowed to continue, enough heat will be generated to start a fire.
A schematic diagram illustrating an example of line arcing is shown in FIG. 2. Cable 120 comprises electrical conductors 124, 126 covered by outer insulation 122 and separated by inner insulation 128. Deterioration or damage to the inner insulation at 121 may cause line fault arcing 123 to occur between the two conductors 124, 126. The inner insulation could have been carbonized by an earlier lightning strike to the wiring system, or it could have been cut by mechanical action such as a metal chair leg cutting into an extension cord.
The potentially devastating results of arcing are widely known and a number of methods of detecting arcs have been developed in the prior art. A large percentage of the prior art refers to detecting the high frequency signals generated on the AC line by arcs. FIG. 3 shows the wide spectrum noise 162 produced on the AC line by an arc. It is superimposed over the AC line voltage 164. An analysis of the arc waveform, using a frequency spectrum analyzer, shows that the overtones and high frequency harmonics contained within the waveform extend well into the GHz range. A graph illustrating the frequency spectrum analysis of the waveform 162 shown in FIG. 3 is shown in FIG. 4.
One major problem associated with any type of arc detection is false tripping. False tripping occurs when an arc detector produces a warning output, or disconnects a section of wiring from the voltage source, when a dangerous arcing condition does not actually exist. The two major causes of false tripping are normal appliance arcing and the inrush currents created by inductive and capacitive appliances. These two situations generate high frequency signals on the power line that are very similar to those generated by dangerous arcing. Thus, to be viable commercial devices, arc detectors must be able to distinguish arcing signals from the signals created by normal appliance use.
A wide range of prior art exists in the field of arc detection. Some of the prior art refers to specialized instances of arcing. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,376,243, issued to Renn, et al., teaches a device that operates with DC current. U.S. Pat. No. 4,658,322, issued to Rivera, teaches a device that detects arcing within an enclosed unit of electrical equipment. U.S. Pat. No. 4,878,144, issued to Nebon, teaches a device that detects the light produced by an arc between the contacts of a circuit breaker.
In addition, there are several patents that refer to detecting arcs on AC power lines that disclose various methods of detecting high frequency arcing signals. For example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,185,684 and 5,206,596, both issued to Beihoff et al., employ a complex detection means that separately detects the electric field and the magnetic field produced around a wire. U.S. Pat. No. 5,590,012, issued to Dollar, teaches measuring the high frequency current in a shunted path around an inductor placed in the line, which can be the magnetic trip mechanism of a breaker. In a second detection circuit, proposed by Dollar, high frequency voltage signal is extracted from the line via a high pass filter placed in parallel with any load.
Various methods can be found in the prior art to authenticate arcing and to differentiate arcing from other sources of noise. Much of the prior art involves complicated signal processing and analysis. U.S. Pat. No. 5,280,404, issued to Ragsdale, teaches looking for series arcing by converting the arcing signals to pulses and counting the pulses.
In addition, several patents detect arcing by taking the first derivative or second derivative of the detected signal. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,224,006, issued to MacKenzie et al., and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,185,684 and 5,206,596, issued to Beihoff et al, disclose such a device.
Blades uses several methods to detect arcs as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,223,795, 5,432,455 and 5,434,509. The Blades device is based on that fact that detected high frequency noise must include gaps at each zero crossing, i.e., half cycle, of the AC line. To differentiate arcing from other sources of noise, the Blades device measures the randomness and/or wide bandwidth characteristics of the detected high frequency signal. The device taught by U.S. Pat. No. 5,434,509 uses the fast rising edges of arc signals as a detection criterion and detects the short high frequency bursts associated with intermittent arcs.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,561,505, issued to Zuercher et al., discloses a method of detecting arcing by sensing cycle to cycle changes in the AC line current. Differences in samples taken at the same point in the AC cycle are then processed to determine whether arcing is occurring.